Singapore Expansion

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Singapore Expansion:
How Dredging Transformed an Island Nation Into an Industrial Capital

Brantz von Mayer and The Writers for Hire

Overview

Map of Singapore
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Map of Singapore

A scant five decades ago, with a GDP of less than $320 per capita, no real industrial infrastructure, and only meager land resources, the city-state of Singapore was hardly a player on the world economic stage. However, what the tiny country did have was a longstanding entrepôt tradition on which to expand , as well as a prime trade-route location that offered an almost unparalleled potential for shipping on a grand scale. (1) (2)

Today, Singapore has surpassed Hong Kong and Rotterdam, and is second only to Shanghai as the world's busiest transshipment port. With a current annual per capita GDP of $60,000 (a staggering $3 billion total), the once insignificant country has become the 15th largest trading partner outside of the U.S. In addition to boasting more than 3,000 multinational firms in banking, manufacturing, biotechnology, and oil refineries, a burgeoning state-of-the-art medical tourism trade, a thriving culinary scene, exclusive casino resorts, and natural attractions including a zoo, night safaris and a nature preserve, the country is also enjoying success as a travel destination that pulls in more than 10,000 visitors annually.

None of this would have been possible without dredging.

The Petrochemical Connection

How does a tiny country with no oil reserves of its own become home to over 100 global petroleum and petrochemical companies? In Singapore's case, the answer was to make these companies a home.

Despite a diminutive geographic footprint and limited national resources, Singapore was determined to make its mark in the world. Realizing the key to economic development was industrialization through globalization, Singapore's leaders began to throw their nets outward. They hoped that by establishing a business-friendly environment that featured low taxes; a stable, law-abiding society; and a willing workforce, they would attract international investors. Their gambit paid off royally.

During the mid-1900s, the government touted itself as the ideal locale for heavy industry _ and several major international companies (including Esso, Mobil, BP, Shell, and Phillips Petroleum, and Sumitomo Chemical) jumped at the invitation.

Singapore Expansion
Pink areas illustrate the land created circa 2013
Red areas illlustrate planned future expansion
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Singapore ExpansionPink areas illustrate the land created circa 2013Red areas illlustrate planned future expansion

But by the 1980s, it was clear that Singapore had gotten a little ahead of itself. Although it was a good problem to have _ too many interested parties _ the country was running out of land. For the desired rapid growth and industrialization to continue, some strategic planning was in store.

Toward this goal, Singapore has invested well over $10 billion in two major land reclamation projects in its southwest corner, Jurong Island [internal link to section in this article] and the Tuas Peninsula [internal link to section in this article]. Together, these projects have formed a massive industrial area that helped the country position itself as the international hub of the petrochemicals industry. Since the Jurong and Tuas reclamation efforts began, this petrochemical cluster has attracted more than $42 billion in investments. And the presence of so many international companies in one place has become self-reinforcing: This critical mass fosters economies of scale that continue to lure additional industry giants. Now, thanks in great part to capital dredging, the region is the third-largest oil refining and petrochemical hub in the world.

Ongoing reclamation has increased Singapore's land area almost 20% – from 224 square miles (580 square km) since independence in 1965 to 272 square miles (704 square km) today. Future capital dredging could expand the total inhabitable topography by another 40 square miles (100 square km) by 2030 in order to accommodate both industry and a projected population of 6.9 million. (3)

Jurong Island: Seven Become One

Jurong Island
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Jurong Island

Jurong Island – the first of these two massive land reclamation projects – is the result of creative engineering. Seven existing islands (Pulau Merlimau, Pulau Ayer Chawan, Pulau Ayer Merbau, Pulau Seraya, Pulau Sakra, Pulau Pesek, and Pulau Pesek Kecil) off the southwestern corner of Singapore's main island were merged into one. The result: Jurong Island is now the country's largest outlying island. Through massive capital dredging, this 12 square-mile (32-square-km) area of usable land grew from an initial area of less than 4 square miles (10 square km).

Jurong Dredging and Reclamation

The official discussion regarding the merits of joining the islands to create a complete industrial hub began in 1984. In 1991, the government approved plans to unite this group of separate islands for a $5.6 billion price tag. Jurong Town Corporation (JTC) was charged with planning and coordinating the infrastructure of the new colossal island, with the Japanese construction outfit PentaOcean handling the bulk of land reclamation.

Although the dredging process itself was certainly an engineering feat, it was perhaps the dredging plan that was the most fascinating part of this project. Before a single dredger was employed, the engineers had documented a detailed blueprint to maximize project efficiency and minimize costs. The designers planned shared facilities, centralized logistics, and common corridors. (4)

This world-class planning, combined with a greater-than-expected increase in industry demand, allowed the reclamation to be completed over 20 years ahead of schedule. Phased reclamation was intended to keep pace with the anticipated demands of the petrochemicals industry, with work beginning in 1995 and the final phase originally scheduled for 2030. The amalgamation of Jurong Island, however, was completed in September 2009. (5)

Hopper Dredger Projecting Sand
Photo Source

Hopper Dredger Projecting Sand

To complete the reclamations, cutter suction dredgers and trailer suction hopper dredgers claimed sand from borrow sites 25-68 miles (40-110km) away in the South China Sea, offshore of Riau Province, Indonesia, and Malaysia. Meanwhile, crane barges and grab dredgers dredged the sand-key trench for shore protection. The dredgers then transported the fill, and either pumped it ashore or used direct placement or “rainbowing,” an economical method that delivers huge quantities of sand by projecting it through the air via a high pressure jet without the need for floating pipelines or other associated equipment. Alternately, hopper barges used the bottom-opening method to deposit fill in specific desired locations.

During the reclamation, a complex system of phases kept current businesses functioning, while the individual land masses were joined. Dredgers first created two large islands from the smaller ones. The next phase represented the largest reclamation contract in history: For $2 billion, Singapore linked these two islands to create a final, large Jurong Island. (6) Finally, the last phase linked the new island to the main island by the 1.4-mile (2.3-km) Jurong Island Highway causeway.

Jurong Island is a dynamic landmass, and JTC constantly explores options to enhance the island's industrial environment. (7) For example, an eighth island (Pulau Buaya) was joined to Jurong Island through reclamation in 2010. In 2013, the construction of a jetty required additional reclaim land. And current work is taking place to add an extension to the island: A fleet of spud grab dredgers and self-propelled trailing suction hopper dredgers expect to complete the work by mid-2018 for a price tag above $800 million.

Tuas Peninsula: Turning Marshland into Money

Adjacent to Jurong Island, Singapore again resorted to capital dredging to turn average swampland into highly profitable industrial real estate.

In the 1970s, the government eyed the Tuas region – originally little more a swamp that became a rural coastal fishing village – as another potential industrial center. Its proximity to then-planned Jurong Island was key to achieving the government's goal of establishing an important commercial zone for international business. At the same time, though, it was far enough from Singapore's main residential and commercial areas to prevent impacting mainland life. (8)

Tuas Dredging and Reclamation

As with Jurong Island, Tuas Peninsula was a multi-stage production requiring a well-crafted plan. The peninsula can be divided into two segments, based on the completion of reclamation:

1. Tuas South is the first section reclaimed, closest to the mainland. This initial reclamation project was completed in phases from 1984 to 1999. Capital dredging for land reclamation created 3.9 square miles (10.22 square km) of new land.


2. 2. Tuas South Extension is the newer portion at the southern tip, further seaward. This extension project added another 7.3 square miles (19.08 square km) of new land to the reclaimed island from 2000 to 2008.

As with the capital dredging to amalgamate Jurong Island, JTC once again enlisted PentaOcean for the majority of the Tuas land reclamation efforts. Similar to the Jurong Island process, the Tuas expansion required an inclusive fleet of cutter suction dredgers, trailer suction hopper dredgers, and hopper barges for the land reclamation, while crane barges and grab dredgers dredged the sand-key trench for shore protection.

Tuas Peninsula
Photo Source

Tuas Peninsula

Operators also used the “landfill method” to extend the Tuas Peninsula. This reclamation method turned waterlogged marsh into usable acreage by filling it with sand to create dry land. First, columns of sand were forced into the soft clay of the sea floor to add stability, then a sand wall was built around the desired reclamation site. Cutter suction dredgers and trailer suction hopper dredgers claimed sand from borrow sites in the South China Sea, offshore of Riau Province, Indonesia, and Malaysia , and then deposited it into the walled-off zone. After compressing the sand, workers built a stone wall on the seaward side and planted vegetation to thwart erosion.

Thanks to extensive capital dredging, the expanded Tuas Peninsula now accommodates heavy industry at the Tuas Industrial Estate. The region has truly become an industrial epicenter, with two of Singapore's four incinerators, a desalination plant, a world-scale renewable diesel plant that is the largest plant of its kind, and the world's largest oil storage facility. Tuas also serves as a major port center, housing the Republic of Singapore's Tuas Naval Base and the Tuas Checkpoint Complex that links the country to neighboring Malaysia.

The Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore (MPA) has ongoing reclamation works to continually enhance the Tuas Extension. Current dredging efforts – which employ around-the-clock fleets of dredgers, barges, and tug boats – are expected to be completed in mid-2014. (9)

Controversies and Conclusions

While there's no doubt that land reclamation achieved through capital dredging has enhanced Singapore's economy, and that without the implementation of this advanced technology, much of the island nation would remain unsuitable for expansion, the continuing efforts to increase viable land mass for urbanization and industrialization has not been met with unanimous approval.

Due to the overwhelming success of Jurong, Singapore has striven to maintain its momentum by meeting the unprecedented demand for buildable sites with an uninterrupted supply. As a result, the country has become the world's largest importer of sand , however, Singapore's ongoing land reclamation projects require substantially more fill sand than the tiny island nation is able to provide for itself.

A political controversy has arisen, with the Malay government claiming that any further expansion along the Tuas Peninsula will encroach into Malaysian territorial waters. (10)

Additionally, the massive volume of sand imports have raised suspicions from both Malaysia and other neighboring countries including Indonesia, Vietnam, and Cambodia over the specter of “sand smuggling,”

Additionally, the massive volume of sand imports have raised suspicions from both Malaysia and other neighboring countries including Indonesia, Vietnam, and Cambodia over the specter of “sand smuggling,” (11) a practice that can lead to devastating consequences not only on ecosystems at both the borrow sites and the reclamation areas, but on neighboring local economies as well.

Global Witness, a multi-national watchdog organization founded in 1993 that primarily investigates and reports on the links between environmental profiteering and human rights abuses (particularly in regard to the exploitation of natural resources), maintains that much of the sand harvested for Singapore's expansion projects has been irresponsibly dredged. In a May 2010 report entitled, “Shifting Sands: How Singapore's demand for Cambodian sand threatens ecosystems and undermines good governance” (12) they caution that the lack of sufficient regulatory oversight within the so-called “sand trade” has resulted in everything from human rights violations, graft, political corruption, misappropriation of funds, and the decimation of local fisheries, to endangering the habitats of several endangered marine species including the Dugong, Irrawaddy and spinner dolphins, and certain species of indigenous sea horses.

The government of Singapore strongly refutes claims posited by various organizations that it has broken any laws or environmental guidelines in obtaining sand for its expansion project. They hold that they purchase the sand commercially from private firms operating out of various countries, and it is the job of the exporting countries to police their own citizens and enforce their own laws and regulations. Notwithstanding the controversies that have arisen surrounding the procurement of such massive amounts of sand, it's clear that Singapore's expansion initiatives will continue for the foreseeable future.

Resources and Citations

1. "Singapore's Economic Development": http://geography.about.com/od/economic-geography/a/Singapore-Economic-Development.htm

2. Wikipedia: "Singapore.": http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore

3. Singapore has sufficient land to accommodate projected 6.9m population by 2030: http://news.xin.msn.com/en/singapore/singapore-has-sufficient-land-to-accommodate-projected-69m-population-by-2030

4. Oil and Gas Week: "The Island": http://www.theoilandgasweek.com/191212/article.html

5. Wikipedia: "Jurong Island": http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurong_Island

6. Oil and Gas Week: "The Island": http://www.theoilandgasweek.com/191212/article.html

7. JTC: "Real Estate Solutions / Jurong Island": http://www.jtc.gov.sg/RealEstateSolutions/Jurong-Island/Pages/default.aspx

8. Absolute Astronomy: "Tuas": http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Tuas

9. SeeNews Shipping: "Singapore Port Continues Reclamation Works at Tuas View Extension": http://shipping.seenews.com/news/singapore-port-continues-reclamation-works-at-tuas-view-extension-378178

10.Coastal Care: "Singapore Extends its Coastlines with Illegally Dredged Sand": http://coastalcare.org/2011/02/singapore-extends-its-coastlines-with-illegally-dredged-sand

11.Coastal Care: "Singapore Sand Imports Threaten Cambodian Ecosystem": http://coastalcare.org/2010/05/singapore-sand-imports-threaten-cambodian-ecosystem

12.Shifting Sands: "How Singapore's demand for Cambodian sand threatens ecosystems and undermines good governance": http://www.globalwitness.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/shifting_sand_final.pdf

Singapore has utilized extensive land reclamation to expand beyond its original geographical borders.

The reclamation of land from surrounding waters is used in Singapore to expand the city-state's limited area of usable, natural land. Land reclamation is most simply done by adding material such as rocks, soil and cement to an area of water; alternatively submerged wetlands or similar biomes can be drained.

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In Singapore the former has been the most common method until recently, with sand the predominant material used. Due to a global shortage and restricted supply of the required type of sand (river and beach sand, not desert sand), Singapore has switched to polders for reclamation since 2016 — a method from the Netherlands in which an area is surrounded by a dyke and pumped dry to reclaim the land.

Land reclamation allows for increased development and urbanization,[1] and in addition to Singapore has been similarly useful to Hong Kong and Macau. Each of these is a small coastal territory restrained by its geographical boundaries, and thus traditionally limited by the ocean's reach. The use of land reclamation allows these territories to expand outwards by recovering land from the sea. At just 719 km2 (278 sq mi), the entire country of Singapore is smaller than New York City. As such, the Singaporean government has used land reclamation to supplement Singapore's available commercial, residential, industrial, and governmental properties (military and official buildings). Land reclamation in Singapore also allows for the preservation of local historic and cultural communities, as building pressures are reduced by the addition of reclaimed land.[2] Land reclamation has been used in Singapore since the early 19th century, extensively so in this last half-century in response to the city-state's rapid economic growth.[3] In 1960, Singapore was home to fewer than two million people; that number had more than doubled by 2008, to almost four and a half million people.[4] To keep up with such an increase in population (as well as a concurrent surge in the country's economy and industrialization efforts), Singapore has increased its land mass by 22% since independence in 1965, with land continuously being set aside for future use.[5],[6] Though Singapore's native population is no longer increasing as rapidly as it was in the mid-twentieth century, the city-state has experienced a continued influx in its foreign population,[7] resulting in a continued investment in land reclamation by the government. The government thus plans to expand the city-state by an additional 7-8% by 2030.[5]

History

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Stamford Raffles's plan for the Town of Singapore, 1822.

The early phases of land reclamation began not long after Sir Stamford Raffles arrived in what would become modern Singapore in 1819. Raffles had come to the area with the goal of developing a British port to rival that of the Dutch, and though contemporary Singapore was the ideal location for a harbour, it was at the time only a small fishing village.[8][3] Converting this village into a significant trading centre required reorganization and better utilization of the land. After some alterations to his original plans, Raffles decided in 1822 that the commercial centre of his new port should be located on the south bank of the Singapore River, close to the river's mouth.[9] At that time, the south bank was largely uninhabited swamp, covered in mangrove trees and sprinkled with creeks.[9] Though Singapore's first British Resident, William Farquhar, expressed concerns about the cost and feasibility of reclaiming this land, it was eventually decided that the project was achievable.[9] The southwest bank of the river was found to be prone to flooding, so Raffles decided to dismantle a small hill (located in today's Raffles Place) and use the soil to raise and fill in the low-lying areas that would otherwise be affected by flooding.[9] The project began in the second half of 1822, and was completed in three to four months (largely by Chinese, Malay, and Indian labourers).[9] The land was broken up into lots, which were sold off to commercial investors.[9]

After this first land reclamation project, there were no significant alterations to Singapore's geography until 1849, which brought the building of port facilities that became increasingly important after the establishment of the British Straits Settlements in 1826 and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, both of which allowed for improved connections between the city-state and Europe.[3]

After the turn of the century (particularly from 1919 to 1923), Singaporean land reclamation was primarily the result of a need for increased public utilities (such as roads and railways) and military coastal protection.[3] Such development was interrupted by World War II, when the Japanese occupied Singapore and directed focus away from an improved Singapore and towards an extended Japanese culture. There was thus a lull in industrialization in Singapore during this period, which continued throughout the 1950s and early 1960s (during which time Singapore experienced extensive political change) until the city-state's participation in the founding of Malaysia in 1963.[3] As part of Malaysia and continuing after independence in 1965, Singapore benefitted from economic development programs, which both enabled and required significant land reclamation projects.[3] Rapidly increasing demand for industrial, infrastructural, commercial, and residential land resulted in projects that reclaimed hundreds of hectares (acres) at a time.[3] The Jurong Industrial Estate began development in the early 1960s to meet industrial land needs, and by 1968 already housed 153 factories, with another 46 under construction. The original landscape of the region was greatly changed and is now restricted to the areas around the Pandan Reservoir and Sungei Pandan. Also in the early 1960s, Singapore's central business district was extended into land reclaimed from the sea.[3] Post-war industrialization and land reclamation transformed Singapore's weak economy.

Modern Singapore's Marina Bay area, a development made possible through land reclamation

In 1981, Singapore Changi Airport opened after the clearing of roughly 2 km2 (0.8 sq mi) of swampland and the introduction of over 52,000,000 m3 (68,000,000 cu yd) of land- and seafill. As Changi Airport maintains a policy of continual development in preparation for the future, a third airport terminal was planned from the beginning, and was opened on January 1, 2007.

By 1991, 10% of Singapore was reclaimed land.[3] By that year, industrial land on Singapore's mainland had again grown scarce, and it was decided that seven islets south of Jurong would be merged to form one large island, Jurong Island. By 2008, Singapore was one of the top three oil trading and refining hubs globally.[10] The necessary facilities for such an involvement in the oil industry require a very large amount of space, and today, Singapore's facilities are housed almost entirely on Jurong Island and the Jurong Industrial Estates.[10]

In 1992, the Marina Centre and Marina South land reclamation projects were completed after their commission in the late 1970s, encompassing 360 ha (890 acres) of waterfront development. These projects involved the removal of the Telok Ayer Basin and Inner Roads; the mouth of the Singapore River was also rerouted to flow into Marina Bay rather than directly into the sea. The Marina Bay reclamation projects added significant waterside land adjacent to Singapore's central business district, creating prime real estate that is used for commercial, residential, hotel, and entertainment purposes today.

Singapore continues to develop and expand, with plans to expand the city's land area by an additional 7-8% of reclaimed land by 2030.[11]

Recent difficulties with sand mining

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Reclamation of submerged land requires a substance to fill in the reclaimed area. Given the shallow depth of the waters surrounding much of Singapore, sand has generally been seen as the best option for this process.[12] Raffles used soil from a razed hill to raise the southwest bank of the Singapore River, but sand is the predominant choice.[13] In fact, Singapore has used so much sand that it has run out of its own, and imports sand from surrounding areas in order to meet its land reclamation needs.[5] Though industries around the world depend on sand, the United Nations Environment Programme found Singapore to be the largest importer of sand worldwide in 2014.[5] In 2010 alone, Singapore imported 14.6 million tons of sand.[13]

In recent years, however, sources of sand have become more scarce. In 1997, Malaysia announced a ban on the export of sand,[13] yet Malaysian media continue to report rampant smuggling of sand into Singapore, leading then former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad to protest that these corrupt sand miners were "digging Malaysia and giving her to other people".[13]

A sand mining boat dredges Cambodia's Tatai River.

In 2007, Indonesia enacted a ban against exporting sand specifically to Singapore.[13] This ban followed tensions between Singapore and Indonesia regarding islands lying between the two countries: sand miners had reportedly all but demolished these islands.[13] In 2007, more than 90% of Singapore's imported sand had come from Indonesia.[14] The ban resulted in an increase in construction costs in Singapore as well as the need to find new sources of sand, which has become increasingly difficult as more neighbouring countries institute their own bans and regulations regarding the export of sand.[14] In 2009, Vietnam instituted its own ban against the export of sand to Singapore,[15] followed the same year by Cambodia, although that country's prohibition was less all-encompassing: though sand from some seabeds could still be exported, river sand could no longer be dredged and distributed.[13] More recently, however, certain rivers that receive replenishments of sand naturally due to their proximity to seawater have been made exempt from this ban.[13] In spite of these restrictions, Cambodia, which provided just 25% of Singapore's sand imports in 2010, is now its primary source of sand. This increase has dramatically changed local ecosystems.[13] After the dredging of Cambodia's Tatai River (exempt from the ban) began in 2010, locals saw an estimated 85% reduction in the catch of fish, crab, and lobsters; tourist numbers have similarly decreased as construction and noise have surged.[13] People living near the river have petitioned for an end to sand mining there.[13] Large-scale damage has been seen throughout Koh Kong Province as a result of this dredging.[15]

The Singaporean government refuses to disclose where the sand it receives is imported from.[15] The Ministry of National Development has said that the government buys sand from "a diverse range of approved sources", but maintains that further details are not public information.[15]

Starting in November 2016, Singapore has started to use a different land reclamation method, the polder development method, which should lessen its reliance on sand for land reclamation.[14] Used by the Netherlands for many years, this method involves building a wall to keep out seawater from a low-lying tract of land, known as a polder, while drains and/or pumps control water levels.[14] It is to be used first on the northwestern tip of Pulau Tekong, a future military training base which will be expanded by 810 ha (2,000 acres).[14]

Controversy with Malaysia

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In 2003, Singapore received complaints from Malaysia over land reclamation projects at either end of the Straits of Johor, which separate the two countries.[5] Malaysia claimed that Singapore's plans infringed on Malaysian dominion and were detrimental to both the environment and the livelihoods of local fishermen,[5] and legally challenged Singapore under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea.[5] The dispute was settled after arbitration.[5]

More recently, Singapore has issued its own complaints against Malaysia regarding the latter's two land reclamation projects in the Straits of Johore. One project would involve the creation and linkage of four islands within the strait, creating a new metropolis called Forest City,[5] which Malaysia plans to advertise as a garden oasis, with buildings covered by greenery and an impressive expanse of public transport. Progress on the project came to a halt after Singapore protested against its construction in 2014, but the Malaysian government reportedly approved a scaled-down version of the project in January 2015.[5]

Environmental consequences

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Singapore's industrialisation (particularly in terms of coastal development) and land reclamation projects have resulted in the extensive loss of marine habitats along the city-state's shores.[16] The majority of Singapore's southern coast has been altered through the process of land reclamation, as have large areas of the northeastern coast.[16] Many offshore islands have been changed, often through the filling of waters between small islands in order to create cohesive landmasses.[16]

Such development has led to the loss of 95% of Singapore's mangroves.[17] When Stamford Raffles arrived in Singapore in 1819, the land was largely mangrove swamp; today, mangrove cover accounts for less than 0.5% of Singapore's total land area.[18][19] This loss has greatly diminished the beneficial effects of mangroves, which include protection against erosion and reduction in organic pollution,[20] both of which serve to ameliorate coastal water quality.[20]

Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve, an important conservation area in Singapore.

Singapore has also suffered an enormous loss in coral reefs as the result of extensive land and coastal development.[17] Prior to the land reclamation of the last several decades, Singapore's coral reefs covered an estimated 100 km2 (39 sq mi).[19] By 2002, that number had dropped to 54 km2 (21 sq mi).[19] Estimates are that up to 60% of the habitat is no longer sustainable.[19] Since coral reef monitoring was first instigated in the late 1980s, a clear overall decline in live coral cover has been noted, as has a decline in the depths at which corals thrive.[21] Fortunately, though there have been limited extinctions of local species, overall coral reef diversity has not diminished: the main loss has instead been a general, relatively equal decrease in the population abundance of each species.[21] Coral reefs are valued for their work towards carbon sequestration and shore protection (particularly in the dispersal of wave energy), as well as for their contributions to fisheries production, ecotourism, and scientific research.[22]

Singapore has also seen the negative effects of industrialisation impact several other coastal and marine habitats, such as seagrass, seabed, and seashores, all of which have suffered loss or degradation similar to that of the mangroves and coral reefs.[17]

Though much harm has been done to Singapore's aquatic ecosystems as the result of land reclamation projects and expansive industrialisation, there has been more of an effort in recent years to accommodate and restore damaged environments.[23] Since the mid-1990s, more attention has been paid to environmental impact assessments (EIAs), which identify the potential ecological consequences of a given developmental venture as well as possible ways to lessen the environmental harm.[17] In the development of the Semakau Landfill, for example, an extensive EIA was carried out after the project's commission in 1999.[24] The assessment found that coral reefs and mangroves within the allotted 350 ha (860 acres) project would be harmed,[25] and as a result plans were put in place to reforest the mangroves elsewhere, and sediment screens were installed to prevent silt from reaching reefs that would have otherwise been negatively affected.[25] EIAs are not, however, required by any legislature, and thus are not mandatory for land reclamation projects.[17] Yet the Singapore government has been increasingly open to public feedback regarding increased sustainability in future land projects.[23]

In terms of restoration efforts, nature activists and public authorities alike have been working more and more towards the strengthening of biotic communities.[23] Though Singapore has seen the extinction of more than 28% of native flora and fauna, it has also witnessed the introduction of foreign flora and fauna to its ecosystems, increasing the country's biodiversity. Efforts towards the development of nature reserves have also helped to protect local wildlife, over half of which is now present only in such reserves.

See also

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References

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