5 Must-Have Features in a Structural Steel Products Supply

The properties of structural steel result from both its chemical composition and its method of manufacture , including processing during fabrication. Product standards define the limits for composition, quality and performance and these limits are used or presumed by structural designers. This article reviews the principal properties that are of interest to the designer and indicates the relevant standards for particular products. Specification of steelwork is covered in a separate article.

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[top]Material properties required for design

The properties that need to be considered by designers when specifying steel construction products are:

• Strength
• Toughness
• Ductility
• Weldability
• Durability.

For design, the mechanical properties are derived from minimum values specified in the relevant product standard. Weldability is determined by the chemical content of the alloy, which is governed by limits in the product standard. Durability depends on the particular alloy type - ordinary carbon steel, weathering steel or stainless steel .

[top]Factors that influence mechanical properties

Steel derives its mechanical properties from a combination of chemical composition, heat treatment and manufacturing processes. While the major constituent of steel is iron, the addition of very small quantities of other elements can have a marked effect upon the properties of the steel. The strength of steel can be increased by the addition of alloys such as manganese, niobium and vanadium. However, these alloy additions can also adversely affect other properties, such as ductility, toughness and weldability .

Minimizing the sulphur level can enhance ductility , and toughness can be improved by the addition of nickel. The chemical composition for each steel specification is therefore carefully balanced and tested during its production to ensure that the appropriate properties are achieved.

The alloying elements also produce a different response when the material is subjected to heat treatments involving cooling at a prescribed rate from a particular peak temperature. The manufacturing process may involve combinations of heat treatment and mechanical working that are of critical importance to the performance of the steel.

Mechanical working takes place as the steel is being rolled or formed. The more steel is rolled, the stronger it becomes. This effect is apparent in the material standards, which tend to specify reducing levels of yield strength with increasing material thickness.

The effect of heat treatment is best explained by reference to the various production process routes that can be used in steel manufacturing, the principal ones being:

• As-rolled steel
• Normalized steel
• Normalized-rolled steel
• Thermomechanically rolled (TMR) steel
• Quenched and tempered (Q&T) steel.

Steel cools as it is rolled, with a typical rolling finish temperature of around 750°C. Steel that is then allowed to cool naturally is termed 'as-rolled' material. Normalizing takes place when as-rolled material is heated back up to approximately 900°C, and held at that temperature for a specific time, before being allowed to cool naturally. This process refines the grain size and improves the mechanical properties, specifically toughness. Normalized-rolled is a process where the temperature is above 900°C after rolling is completed. This has a similar effect on the properties as normalizing, but it eliminates the extra process of reheating the material. Normalized and normalized-rolled steels have an 'N' designation.

The use of high tensile steel can reduce the volume of steel needed but the steel needs to be tough at operating temperatures, and it should also exhibit sufficient ductility to withstand any ductile crack propagation. Therefore, higher strength steels require improved toughness and ductility, which can be achieved only with low carbon clean steels and by maximizing grain refinement. The implementation of the thermomechanical rolling process (TMR) is an efficient way to achieve this.

Thermomechanically rolled steel utilises a particular chemistry of the steel to permit a lower rolling finish temperature of around 700°C. Greater force is required to roll the steel at these lower temperatures, and the properties are retained unless reheated above 650°C. Thermomechanically rolled steel has an 'M' designation.

The process for Quenched and Tempered steel starts with a normalized material at 900°C. It is rapidly cooled or 'quenched' to produce steel with high strength and hardness, but low toughness. The toughness is restored by reheating it to 600°C, maintaining the temperature for a specific time, and then allowing it to cool naturally (Tempering). Quenched and tempered steels have a 'Q' designation.

Quenching involves cooling a product rapidly by immersion directly into water or oil. It is frequently used in conjunction with tempering which is a second stage heat treatment to temperatures below the austenitizing range. The effect of tempering is to soften previously hardened structures and make them tougher and more ductile.

[top]Strength

[top]Yield strength

Yield strength is the most common property that the designer will need as it is the basis used for most of the rules given in design codes . In European Standards for structural carbon steels (including weathering steel ), the primary designation relates to the yield strength, e.g. S355 steel is a structural steel with a specified minimum yield strength of 355 N/mm².

The product standards also specify the permitted range of values for the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). The minimum UTS is relevant to some aspects of design.

[top]Hot rolled steels

For hot rolled carbon steels, the number quoted in the designation is the value of yield strength for material up to 16 mm thick. Designers should note that yield strength reduces with increasing plate or section thickness (thinner material is worked more than thick material and working increases the strength). For the two most common grades of steel used in UK, the specified minimum yield strengths and the minimum tensile strength are shown in table below for steels to BS EN -2[1] .

Minimum yield and tensile strength for common steel grades Grade Yield strength (N/mm2) for nominal thickness t (mm) Tensile strength (N/mm2) for nominal thickness t (mm) t ' 16 16 < t ' 40 40 < t ' 63 63 < t ' 80 3 < t ' 100 100 < t ' 150 S275 275 265 255 245 410 400 S355 355 345 335 325 470 450

The UK National Annex to BS EN -1-1[2] allows the minimum yield value for the particular thickness to be used as the nominal (characteristic) yield strength fy and the minimum tensile strength fu to be used as the nominal (characteristic) ultimate strength.

Similar values are given for other grades in other parts of BS EN  and for hollow sections to BS EN -1[3] .

[top]Cold formed steels

There is a wide range of steel grades for strip steels suitable for cold forming. Minimum values of yield strength and tensile strength are specified in the relevant product standard BS EN [4].

BS EN -1-3[5] tabulates values of basic yield strength fyb and ultimate tensile strength fu that are to be used as characteristic values in design.

[top]Stainless steels

Grades of stainless steel are designated by a numerical 'steel number' (such as 1. for a typical austenitic steel) rather than the 'S' designation system for carbon steels. The stress-strain relationship does not have the clear distinction of a yield point and stainless steel 'yield' strengths for stainless steel are generally quoted in terms of a proof strength defined for a particular offset permanent strain (conventionally the 0.2% strain).

The strengths of commonly used structural stainless steels range from 170 to 450 N/mm². Austenitic steels have a lower yield strength than commonly used carbon steels; duplex steels have a higher yield strength than common carbon steels. For both austenitic and duplex stainless steels, the ratio of ultimate strength to yield strength is greater than for carbon steels.

BS EN -1-4[6] tabulates nominal (characteristic) values of yield strength fy and ultimate minimum tensile strength fu for steels to BS EN -1[7] for use in design.

[top]Toughness

It is in the nature of all materials to contain some imperfections. In steel these imperfections take the form of very small cracks. If the steel is insufficiently tough, the 'crack' can propagate rapidly, without plastic deformation and result in a 'brittle fracture'. The risk of brittle fracture increases with thickness, tensile stress, stress raisers and at colder temperatures. The toughness of steel and its ability to resist brittle fracture are dependent on a number of factors that should be considered at the specification stage. A convenient measure of toughness is the Charpy V-notch impact test - see image on the right. This test measures the impact energy required to break a small notched specimen, at a specified temperature, by a single impact blow from a pendulum.

The various product standards specify minimum values of impact energy for different sub-grades of each strength grade. For non-alloy structural steels the main designations of the subgrades are JR, J0, J2 and K2. For fine grain steels and quenched and tempered steels (which are generally tougher, with higher impact energy) different designations are used. A summary of the toughness designations is given in the table below.

Specified minimum impact energy for carbon steel sub-grades Standard Subgrade Impact strength Test temperature BS EN -2[1]
BS EN -1[3] JR 27J 20oC J0 27J 0oC J2 27J -20oC K2 40J -20oC BS EN -3[8] N 40J -20oc NL 27J -50oc BS EN -4[9] M 40J -20oc ML 27J -50oc BS EN -5[10] J0 27J 0oC J2 27J -20oC K2 40J -20oC J4 27J -40oC J5 27J -50oC BS EN -6[11] Q 30J -20oc QL 30J -40oc QL1 30J -60oc

For thin gauge steels for cold forming, no impact energy requirements are specified for material less than 6 mm thick.

The selection of an appropriate sub-grade, to provide adequate toughness in design situations is given in BS EN '1'10[12] and its associated UK NA[13]. The rules relate the exposure temperature, stress level etc, to a 'limiting thickness' for each sub-grade of steel. PD -1-10[14] contains useful look-up tables and guidance on selection of an appropriate sub-grade is given in ED007.

These design rules were developed for structures subject to fatigue such as bridges and crane supporting structures, and it is acknowledged that their use for buildings where fatigue plays a minor role is extremely safe-sided.

SCI publication P419 presents modified steel thickness limits which may be used in buildings where fatigue is not a design consideration. These new limits have been derived using exactly the same approach behind the Eurocode design rules, but crucially reduce the crack growth due to fatigue. The word 'reduce' is used, since to assume no growth at all would be to eliminate the effect of fatigue altogether. Some fatigue (20,000 cycles) is allowed for based on indicative guidance from a DIN Standard.

The term 'quasi-static' would cover such structures ' in reality that there may be some limited cycling of load, but that would not normally be considered ' the design approach is to consider all loads as static. The key to the new approach is the formula to express the crack growth under 20,000 cycles. Experts at the University of Aachen (who were involved with the development of the Eurocode) provided this all-important expression.

Further background is available in a technical article in the September issue of NSC magazine.

Stainless steels are generally much tougher than carbon steels; minimum values are specified in BS EN -4[15]. BS EN -1-4[6] states that austenitic and duplex steels are adequately tough and not susceptible to brittle fracture for service temperatures down to -40°C.

[top]Ductility

Ductility is a measure of the degree to which a material can strain or elongate between the onset of yield and eventual fracture under tensile loading as demonstrated in the figure below. The designer relies on ductility for a number of aspects of design, including redistribution of stress at the ultimate limit state, bolt group design, reduced risk of fatigue crack propagation and in the fabrication processes of welding, bending and straightening. The various standards for the grades of steel in the above table insist on a minimum value for ductility so the design assumptions are valid and if these are specified correctly the designer can be assured of their adequate performance.

[top]Weldability

All structural steels are essentially weldable. However, welding involves locally melting the steel, which subsequently cools. The cooling can be quite fast because the surrounding material, e.g. the beam, offers a large 'heat sink' and the weld (and the heat introduced) is usually relatively small. This can lead to hardening of the 'heat affected zone' (HAZ) and to reduced toughness. The greater the thickness of material, the greater the reduction of toughness.

The susceptibility to embrittlement also depends on the alloying elements principally, but not exclusively, the carbon content. This susceptibility can be expressed as the 'Carbon Equivalent Value' (CEV), and the various product standards for carbon steels standard give expressions for determining this value.

BS EN [1] sets mandatory limits for CEV for all structural steel products covered, and it is a simple task for those controlling welding to ensure that welding procedure specifications used are qualified for the appropriate steel grade, and CEV.

[top]Other mechanical properties of steel

Other mechanical properties of structural steel that are important to the designer include:

• Modulus of elasticity, E = 210,000 N/mm²
• Shear modulus, G = E/[2(1 + ν)] N/mm², often taken as 81,000 N/mm²
• Poisson's ratio, ν = 0.3
• Coefficient of thermal expansion, α = 12 x 10-6/°C (in the ambient temperature range).

[top]Durability

A further important property is that of corrosion prevention. Although special corrosion resistant steels are available these are not normally used in building construction. The exception to this is weathering steel .

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The most common means of providing corrosion protection to construction steel is by painting or galvanizing. The type and degree of coating protection required depends on the degree of exposure, location, design life, etc. In many cases, under internal dry situations no corrosion protection coatings are required other than appropriate fire protection. Detailed information on the corrosion protection of structural steel is available.

[top]Weathering steel

Weathering steel is a high strength low alloy steel that resists corrosion by forming an adherent protective rust 'patina', that inhibits further corrosion. No protective coating is needed. It is extensively used in the UK for bridges and has been used externally on some buildings. It is also used for architectural features and sculptural structures such as the Angel of the North.

[top]Stainless steel

Stainless steel is a highly corrosion-resistant material that can be used structurally, particularly where a high-quality surface finish is required. Suitable grades for exposure in typical environments are given below.

The stress-strain behaviour of stainless steels differs from that of carbon steels in a number of respects. The most important difference is in the shape of the stress-strain curve. While carbon steel typically exhibits linear elastic behaviour up to the yield stress and a plateau before strain hardening is encountered, stainless steel has a more rounded response with no well-defined yield stress. Therefore, stainless steel 'yield' strengths are generally defined for a particular offset permanent strain (conventionally the 0.2% strain), as indicated in the figure on the right which shows typical experimental stress-strain curves for common austenitic and duplex stainless steels. The curves shown are representative of the range of material likely to be supplied and should not be used in design.

Specified mechanical properties of common stainless steels to EN -4[15] Description Grade Minimum 0.2% proof strength (N/mm2) Ultimate tensile strength (N/mm2) Elongation at fracture (%) Basic chromium-nickel austenitic steels 1. 210 520 ' 720 45 1. 200 500 ' 700 45 Molybdenum-chromiumnickel austenitic steels 1. 220 520 ' 670 45 1. 220 520 ' 670 45 Duplex steels 1. 450 650 ' 850 30 1. 460 640 ' 840 25

The mechanical properties apply to hot rolled plate. For cold rolled and hot rolled strip, the specified strengths are 10-17% higher.

Guidelines for stainless steel selection BS EN ISO [16] Atmospheric Corrosion Class Typical outdoor environment Suitable stainless steel C1 (Very low) Deserts and arctic areas (very low humidity) 1./1., 1. C2 (Low) Arid or low pollution (rural) 1./1., 1. C3 (Medium) Coastal areas with low deposits of salt
Urban or industrialised areas with moderate pollution 1./1., 1.
(1./1.) C4 (High) Polluted urban and industrialised atmosphere
Coastal areas with moderate salt deposits
Road environments with de-icing salts 1., (1./1.), other more highly alloyed duplexes or austenitics C5 (Very high) Severely polluted industrial atmospheres with high humidity
Marine atmospheres with high degree of salt deposits and splashes 1., other more highly alloyed duplexes or austenitics

Materials suitable for a higher class may be used for lower classes but might not be cost effective. Materials within brackets might be considered if some moderate corrosion is acceptable. Accumulation of corrosive pollutants and chlorides will be higher in sheltered locations; hence it might be necessary to choose a recommended grade from the next higher corrosion class.

[top]References

1. ' 1.0 1.1 1.2 BS EN -2: Hot rolled products of structural steels. Technical delivery conditions for non-alloy structural steels, BSI.
2. ' NA+A1: to BS EN -1-1:+A1:, UK National Annex to Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures General rules and rules for buildings, BSI
3. ' 3.0 3.1 BS EN -1: Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain steels. Technical delivery requirements, BSI.
4. ' BS EN : Continuously hot-dip coated steel flat products for cold forming. Technical delivery conditions. BSI
5. ' BS EN -1-3: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. General rules - Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and sheeting, BSI.
6. ' 6.0 6.1 BS EN -1-4:+A1: Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures. General rules. Supplementary rules for stainless steels, BSI
7. ' BS EN -1: Stainless steels. List of stainless steels, BSI
8. ' BS EN -3: , Hot rolled products of structural steels, Part 3: Technical delivery conditions for normalized / normalized rolled weldable fine grain structural steels, BSI
9. ' BS EN -4: +A1:, Hot rolled products of structural steels, Part 4: Technical delivery conditions for thermomechanical rolled weldable fine grain structural steels, BSI
10. ' BS EN -5: , Hot rolled products of structural steels, Part 5: Technical delivery conditions for structural steels with improved atmospheric corrosion resistance, BSI
11. ' BS EN -6: +A1:, Hot rolled products of structural steels, Part 6: Technical delivery conditions for flat products of high yield strength structural steels in the quenched and tempered condition, BSI
12. ' BS EN -1-10: Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures. Material toughness and through-thickness properties, BSI.
13. ' NA to BS EN -1-10: , UK National Annex to Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Material toughness and through-thickness properties. BSI
14. ' PD -1-10: Recommendations for the design of structures to BS EN -1-10. BSI
15. ' 15.0 15.1 BS EN -4: Stainless steels. Technical delivery conditions for sheet/plate and strip of corrosion resisting steels for construction purposes, BSI.
16. ' BS EN ISO : Corrosion of metals and alloys, Corrosivity of atmospheres, Classification, determination and estimation. BSI

[top]Resources

• SCI ED007 Selection of steel sub-grade in accordance with the Eurocodes,
• SCI P419 Brittle fracture: Selection of steel sub-grade to BS EN -1-10,

[top]See also

When sourcing steel for your business, the bottom line often comes down to how to find a quality product at the right price and at the right time. Sourcing is far more intricate than the mentioned. Selecting a reliable and top steel supplier can be a game-changer for your business. In a nutshell, there are 5 qualities you should look for when searching for a steel supplier.

1. Global Experience + Local Expertise

Global sourcing has unique advantages that cannot be replaced, specifically when it comes to steel. As shown in this latest steel market outlook report, China accounts for over 50% of the world's steel production. Many steel users import their supplies from China, India, and other key steel-producing countries for maximized benefits. Getting steel supplies overseas is an increasingly popular trend, especially for those who need consistent and large volumes.

That being said, it's not easy to find global suppliers who can also meet your needs from a local scope.

Firstly, the most common issue, the language barrier, comes to mind. Also, overseas companies may not be that well versed in the local market. That's why it's important to select a supplier that has local team members with in-depth knowledge about the market, preferably a local office.

CUMIC Steel, led by globally experienced management, has a culturally diverse sales team in multiple branch offices around the world. We have local offices in over 10 countries & regions including the U.S, Canada, UAE, South Africa, Thailand, Vietnam, Chile, Peru, Belgium, etc. with experienced traders. With the help of these local experts, the language & cultural barrier can be minimized to zero.

2. A Strong Supply Network of Manufacturers

This is a must for any business that requires a consistent supply of quality steel.

There are countless manufacturers out there, making endless types and grades of steels for various applications. However, it doesn't happen often when a supplier can integrate all these manufacturers' resources and provide an all-in-one package readily available for you.

For example, take a look at the 50 top steel-producing companies according to Worldsteel. CUMIC has long-term cooperation with 9 out of the 10 top steel mills in the world. In addition, our supply network expands to over 200 mills worldwide, including many exclusive agreements with leading manufacturers.

In addition, as an extremely versatile material, steel serves different functions in countless industries, and every steel using scenario may have its own specific demand for the material. Sometimes, standardized production and processing might not be enough for your business, and that's when customization comes in handy. Apart from exclusive agreements with top quality mills, we can also customize orders tailored to your needs, and help you get just the right type of material needed.

3. Technical Support and Market Intelligence

A mediocre steel supplier provides the basic: a steel grade that meets a minimum standard. A great steel supplier is way more than that. Although there are many reputable suppliers in the marketplace, few can offer technical advice or even application knowledge for the challenges many manufacturers face today.

What you should look for instead, is more than just a supplier, because you'll find life incredibly easier when your supplier can consult with you to address downstream operations and final application performance. A trusted steel supplier is prepared to have in-depth discussions with you to provide various suggestions and help you make the right decision for materials and technical services, rather than suggest the easiest or cheapest option.

With the right type of steel supplier, you not only find a good supplier, but also a consultant that can provide much more than the product itself to you.

At CUMIC, we have team members well versed in different types of products and downstream applications. Many come from academic and professional backgrounds of metallurgy, machinery, and have decades of experience working for top steel mills. What you'll find here, is a group of experts who know what they're selling.

Apart from the technical side, CUMIC even has professional market intelligence services.

• We offer steel market analysis reports to our customers on a regular basis.

• We have constant updates of industry news, data, and market insights on our social media channels like our LinkedIn and Facebook page.

For example, you can download our latest market intelligence report, Global Steel Market Outlook , written by our professional team.

4. Demonstration in Consistent Quality

A commitment to quality and continuous improvement is an essential quality you should be looking for in a partnership. Your steel supplier should demonstrate a commitment to providing you with consistent, quality products that exceed your expectations. It's easier said than done, so look for their credentials to make sure they're legit.

For example, they should maintain a quality management system in conformance with their ISO : certification (view our certification here)

Information pertaining to customer experiences (like a customer feedback report, or the type of past projects they have participated in should be readily available.

CUMIC's commitment to quality is also based on how we handle quality control:

• In fact, over 55% of our orders have undergone strict inspection by globally known inspection organizations such as SGS, Bureau Veritas Group, and Intertek, with who we also signed a strategic alliance.

• Over third-party inspection reports are provided per year.

• We closely supervise the production process of mills with sampling inspection.

5.  Long-term Strategies

Anyone that works in raw material sourcing knows, it takes A LOT of work to select a new supplier, and it's even more of a nuisance to switch steel suppliers.

For the procurement of industrial goods, consistency is key, so look for a steel supplier that has a clear long-term strategy.

You want a steel supplier who thinks big and commits to providing long-term solutions, rather than someone who's in the business for some quick cash without consistency.

When it comes to long-term strategies, you can check out your prospective supplier's company history to see how they've evolved, and also see their visions & missions to get a taste of their company culture as well as strategic plans.

More than a Supplier: Look for an All-in-one steel solution provider.

A great steel supplier has the ability to provide a complete solution to the problem and work with you to identify the manufacturing challenges you have. These suppliers not only provide quality products, but also aid you in the manufacturing process and can help you to select the right material for the job.

CUMIC Steel has been serving the global market for over 15 years, with extensive experience in steel solutions for various sectors. With the vision to 'Build the future with steel+', we strive to build partnerships made of steel to connect the supply chain and be the agile partner who can give customers expert advice.

The pace of innovation is rising in this changing industrial landscape, and we have never stopped leveling up our services to exceed your expectations. Get in touch today to open up new horizons through dialogue, to let us be your trusted partner!

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